还是我........(2)

sukiesong2006

微观经济学
(一)总论
Microeconomics is concerned with the allocation of scarce resources. The Themes of Microeconomics include:
1 Behavior of consumers. That is,
（1）When Consuming
（2）How we choose what to buy
2 Behavior of producers. That is,
(1) When Producing
(2)How we choose what to produce
3 Markets. That is,The interaction of consumers and producers
4 Analysis of aggregate issues. They include:
(1)Economic growth
(2)Inflation
(3)Unemployment
In one word, because of the limited resources, you can’t always get what you want. So microeconomics deals with the allocation of Scarce Resources and Trade-offs. Two basic ways are planned economy and market economy.
A market is a geographically defined area where buyers and sellers interact to determine the price of a product or a set of products. How to determine the price is a very important theme in microeconomics.
（二）供给与需求
The basic model to analyze the price is the Supply-Demand curve.
The supply curve shows how much of a good producers are willing to sell at a given price, holding constant other factors that might affect quantity supplied.
The demand curve shows how much of a good consumers are willing to buy as the price per unit changes holding non-price factors constant.
These two curves are the core of market mechanism. In detail, supply and demand interact to determine the market-clearing price. When not in equilibrium, the market will adjust to alleviate a shortage or surplus and return the market to equilibrium. Markets must be competitive for the mechanism to be efficient.
As for the Elasticities of Supply and Demand, it is a measure of the sensitivity of one variable to another.It tells us the percentage change in one variable in response to a one percent change in another variable.
(三)消费者行为
As for the Demand, we require an understanding of the economic theory of consumer behavior.
There are three steps involved in the study of consumer behavior.
1)         We will study consumer preferences
2) we will turn to budget constraints
3)we will combine consumer preferences and budget constraints to determine consumer choices
In reality, consumers and managers frequently make decisions in which there is uncertainty about the future.
Consumers and investors are concerned about the expected value and the variability of uncertain outcomes.
Facing uncertain choices, consumers maximize their expected utility, and average of the utility associated with each outcome, with the associated probabilities serving as weights.
Consumer theory can be applied to decisions to invest in risky assets.
(四)生产理论
The theory of production focuses on the supply side. It will address:
(1)How a firm makes cost-minimizing production decisions
(2)How cost varies with output
(3)Characteristics of market supply
(4)Issues of business regulation
A production function describes the maximum output a firm can produce for each specified combination of inputs.
An isoquant (等量曲线) is a curve that shows all combinations of inputs that yield a given level of output.
Average product of labor measures the productivity of the average worker, whereas marginal product of labor measures the productivity of the last worker added.
The law of diminishing returns explains that the marginal product of an input eventually diminishes as its quantity is increased.
（五）成本理论
The production technology measures the relationship between input and output. Given the production technology, managers must choose how to produce. To determine the optimal level of output and the input combinations, we must focus on costs.
Firms are faced with both fixed and variable costs in the short-run.
When there is a single variable input, as in the short run, the presence of diminishing returns determines the shape of the cost curves.
In the long run, all inputs to the production process are variable.
Cost functions relate the cost of production to the level of output of the firm.
宏观经济学
Macroeconomics deals with the analysis of aggregate issues. For examples, economic growth, inflation and unemployment. Microeconomics is the foundation of macroeconomic analysis. The themes of macroeconomics include:
(1) Theory of national income
(2) Theory of employment
(3) Theory of inflation
(4) Theory of economic growth
(5) Theory of macroeconomic policy

Strategic management
What is strategic management?
Strategic management is a dynamic process of aligning strategies, performance and business results; it is all about people, leadership, technology and processes. Effective combination of these elements will help with strategic direction and successful service delivery. It is a continuous activity of setting and maintaining the strategic direction of the organisation and its business, and making decisions on a day-to-day basis to deal with changing circumstances and the challenges of the business environment. As part of your strategic thinking about advancing the business, you (and your partners) will have set a course for a particular direction, but subsequent policy drivers (such as new performance targets) or business drivers (such as increased demand for services) could take the organisation in a different direction. There could be implications for accountability when you decide whether to take corrective action to get back on course or to go with the new direction. Similarly, there could be implications for governance if relationships with partners change
Why is it important?
Your organisation has to be able to respond effectively to challenges – both problems and opportunities – as they arise. For example, the citizen has increasing expectations of service standards and availability. In response, organisations are working towards an outward-focused view of the way services should be provided - a fundamental shift from the traditional focus on internal concerns. At the same time, major opportunities for improvement may arise from developments such as new information and communications technologies, and the availability of additional financial resources such as the Invest to Save Budget. In many cases the response to the problem or opportunity will:
•        require the continuous attention of senior management
•        affect most or all of the organisation
•        have long term implications
•        require substantial resources
•        be interconnected with other issues and developments.

Key success factors
What characterises effective strategic management? There must be:
•        a clear business strategy and vision for the future
•        a strategic direction endorsed by senior managers, taking account of partners and other stakeholders
•        a mechanism for accountability (to the citizen in meeting their expectations, as well as to the centre in meeting policy targets)
•        a framework for governance at several levels (government-wide down to internal reporting arrangements) that ensures you can coordinate everything (multiple goals) even when there are competing priorities and different goals (see Governance).
•        the ability to exploit opportunities and respond to external change (turbulence) by taking ongoing strategic decisions
•        a coherent framework for managing risk – whether it is balancing the risks and rewards of a business direction, coping with the uncertainties of project risk or ensuring business continuity (see Risk management).

Who is involved in strategic management?
Key roles include:
•        senior executives and business managers in public sector organisations; they need to seek out opportunities for new ways of working that will help the organisation to realise the agenda for change in the public sector; they also need to be aware of the implications of realignment if the strategic direction is changed
•        senior management responsible for reviewing and redefining the requirements for delivery of core services, and for acquiring the means to deliver them
•        staff responsible for developing and reviewing the business strategy in their organisations; they need to appreciate the wider business context partners and other stakeholders affected by the strategy.
Principles
The strategic issues facing the organisation and its response to them will call on the organisation's skills in strategic management – its ability to recognise and deal successfully with strategic issues. In the public sector, these will include:
•        addressing the needs of the citizen, not the convenience of the organisation
•        greater efficiency and value for money
•        improved and innovative service delivery to the public
•        joined-up policy making
•        increased communication with customers and partners
•        greater local-central government coordination
•        improved performance and the implementation of Public Service Agreements
•        realisation of the government's e-government strategy (an enabling framework of key principles such as interoperability and supporting technical standards).
Although the strategy process may incorporate timetabled events which fit in to the wider management processes – such as the cycles of financial planning in the public sector – strategic management is a continuous process. Managers at all levels in the organisation may need to make decisions on business issues at any time, and some of these decisions could be regarded as 'strategic' – even though they may not appear so at the time. Any business-focused strategy, must be flexible enough to accommodate the demands of continuous change.
Processes
Strategic management has a co-ordination and integration role, seeking endorsement of the business and supporting strategies (such as HR workspace and IT) and assuring the appropriateness of strategic themes, see Strategic Management workbook for a more detailed step-by-step approach.
The task of strategic management, in collaboration with partners, is to manage the continuous processes of:
•        maintaining an appropriate relationship between the organisation and its environment – preparing the organisation for an uncertain future
•        developing and executing approaches for the implementation of the agenda for strategic change – progressing the themes of the strategy
•        developing, reviewing and monitoring the policies which scope and constrain management decisions and implementation plans
•        technology tracking to identify opportunities for innovation.
A strategy for the organisation – whether for the business as a whole or for its information systems – should include:
•        a strategic 'vision' – a long-term view of how the organisation wishes to position itself in relation to its business environment – for example, its role and functions, the products or services it will deliver, its relationship with customers or competitors
•        the agenda for change – the significant areas of change the organisation will engage in, in order to respond to the problems and opportunities – the 'strategic issues' – facing it; these will be the 'themes' of the strategy, which may address topics such as organisation and structure, business functions and activities, product and service delivery, management and staffing issues, technology, or external relationships; a theme is progressed over a medium to long time scale
•        the policies which will guide the decision-making processes, and provide a framework for management decisions – they will influence the patterns of behaviour which drive the organisation forward towards the desired future (see Business and supporting strategies).
Your route to the desired future should be mapped out at a high level in terms of the themes of the strategy. Themes can be regarded as the 'strategy success factors' – the things which the organisation must get right if the business is to move in the direction of the desired future.
Strategic decisions
What constitutes a 'strategic' decision? It is likely to be strategic rather than tactical or operational if:
•        the decision has major financial or other resource implications – for example, on staffing or equipment
•        the decision will involve a significant amount of change in the organisation
•        the decision will affect the whole organisation or a large part of it
•        the decision constrains or commits the organisation in significant respects for a long period of time
•        the decision will have a major impact outside the organisation – for example, on customers or other bodies
•        the decision entails significant risks to the business
•        the decision will involve major changes in the business of the organisation, such as the products or services it offers
•        the decision is related to other important decision areas, and raises issues of complexity and 'cross-cutting' interactions
•        it will be difficult or impossible to reverse the consequences of the decision.
If the organisation has to take a strategic decision unexpectedly, the decision will be taken and the strategy updated in parallel. A strategy is a guide to action, not a straitjacket; you should remain open to the need for changes in strategy when the business requires them.


CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY
CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY is the study of human responses to product and service related information and experiences. Many responses are important, including beliefs and judgments, emotions, purchase decisions, and consumption practices. A broad range of product and service related information is also important, such as advertisements, package labels, coupons, consumer magazines, and word-of-mouth communications from friends and relatives. The goals of consumer psychologists are to describe, predict, influence, and/or explain consumer responses.
There are Some Important Terms in Consumer Psychology
1 Consumer Behavior

Consumer behavior deals with how products are evaluated and chosen by consumers; what information os paid attention to, and what was ignored.

2 Personality

A normal individual's personality is internally consistent, even though it might not appear that way from the outside. It is also pretty durable; it ordinarily does not change a great deal over the months and years of a person's life.

3 Sales

You spend money when someone "sells" you something directly or indirectly. Good sellers know that most purchases are based upon emotion, not logic.

4 Marketing

Marketing requires making choices that will please others. Most people find it difficult to decide what is best for themselves.

5 Choice

Consumer choice would be simple if the outcomes were perfectly predictable. In fact, they almost never are. The purchase of just about any kind of consumer product or service involves some risk for the buyer.

There are several important and interesting subfields in Consumer Psychology. Each subfield adds to the psychology of consumer behavior in its own way.


1 Advertising

Advertising is very widespread. It splashes across newspaper and magazine pages, blurts out from radio broadcasts, comes with the daily meal, interrupts television programing and invades the landscape on signs and billboards.

2 Perception

Consumers often "taste" with their eyes and ears. They learn far more from words and images than from sensations. Their perceptual acuity is not nearly as sensitive as marketers usually think it is.

3 Life Stages

Time works its way on all of us. Much of what we are is the result of the maturation process. Time and experience invariably etch their marks on our physical and our psychological selves and consumer preferences.

4 Motivation

We often do not really know exactly why we do the things we do. When people are asked why they made a particular purchase, the responses they give are often not especially accurate or useful.

5 Psychology of Price

What is something really worth? This deceptively simple question is surprisingly difficult to answer. In Medieval times, the idea was that something cost what it was worth, no more and no less. Today the somewhat cynical answer is "whatever the market will bear."

Consumer Psychology is a very exciting field. It offers many excellent opportunities to not only learn a great deal about consumers and why they buy, but also to gain a better understanding of yourself, and how and why you do the things you do. This is a superb field for anyone interested in applying research in ways that lead to tangible and meaningful differences in organizational decisions about the services or products they provide.
Human Resources Management
The Human Resources Management (HRM) function includes a variety of activities, and key among them is deciding what staffing needs you have and whether to use independent contractors or hire employees to fill these needs, recruiting and training the best employees, ensuring they are high performers, dealing with performance issues, and ensuring your personnel and management practices conform to various regulations. Activities also include managing your approach to employee benefits and compensation, employee records and personnel policies. Usually small businesses (for-profit or nonprofit) have to carry out these activities themselves because they can't yet afford part- or full-time help. However, they should always ensure that employees have -- and are aware of -- personnel policies which conform to current regulations. These policies are often in the form of employee manuals, which all employees have.
Note that some people distinguish a difference between between HRM (a major management activity) and HRD (Human Resource Development, a profession). Those people might include HRM in HRD, explaining that HRD includes the broader range of activities to develop personnel inside of organizations, including, eg, career development, training, organization development, etc.
There is a long-standing argument about where HR-related functions should be organized into large organizations, eg, "should HR be in the Organization Development department or the other way around?"
The HRM function and HRD profession have undergone tremendous change over the past 20-30 years. Many years ago, large organizations looked to the "ersonnel Department," mostly to manage the paperwork around hiring and paying people. More recently, organizations consider the "HR Department" as playing a major role in staffing, training and helping to manage people so that people and the organization are performing at maximum capability in a highly fulfilling manner.
(The publications, Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision for Business and Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision for Nonprofit Staff, include comprehensive guidelines about effectively managing human resources in organizations.)
Categories of Information in this Topic Include
Basic Overviews of Human Resource Management
Getting the Best Employees
Paying Employees (and Providing Benefits)
Training Employees
Ensuring Compliance to Regulations
Ensuring Safe Work Environments
Sustaining High-Performing Employees