5.25 英语审核，经济学专业 已过 上传资料回馈abcdv

whui713

5.25， 北京英语审核，经济学专业，刚查到的成绩，已经过了，在此上传我准备的资料，回馈abcdv

whui713

有人能告诉我怎么上传附件么？！我怎么找不到！！！

whui713

宏观经济学
Macroeconomics:
Macroeconomics deals with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the entire economy. Macroeconomists study aggregated indicators such as GDP, unemployment rates to understand how the whole economy functions. Macroeconomists develop models that explain the relationship between such factors as national income, output, consumption, unemployment, inflation, savings, and investment
GDP= gross domestic products. It’s the market value of all final goods and services made within the border of a country in a year.
GNP=gross national products. It’s the market value of all final goods and services produced in a year by labor and property supplied by the residents of a country.
GDP = private consumption + gross investment + government spending + (exports − imports)
GDP = C + I + G + (X-M)
Consumption= autonomous consumption + induced consumption
Marginal propensity to consume(MPC): the increase in personal consumer spending (consumption) that occurs with an increase in disposable income.
Mathematically, the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) function is expressed as the derivative of the consumption (C) function with respect to disposable income (Y).
    MPC=dC/dY or MPC = △C/△Y

The IS/LM model (Investment saving/Liquidity preference Money supply) is a macroeconomic tool that demonstrates the relationship between interest rates and real output in the goods and services market and the money market. The intersection of the IS and LM curves is the "General Equilibrium" where there is simultaneous equilibrium in both markets.
The IS curve is a downward-sloping curve, with the interest rate i on the vertical axis and output Y on the horizontal axis. Every point on the IS curve stands for "Investment and Saving equilibrium".
The LM curve is an upward-sloping curve representing the role of money. Every point on the LM stands for "Liquidity preference and Money supply equilibrium".
Liquidity preference refers to the demand for money. The determination of the interest rate is by the supply and demand for money.
According to Keynes, demand for liquidity is determined by three motives:
The transactions motive: people prefer to have liquidity to assure basic transactions. .The amount of liquidity demanded is determined by the level of income: the higher the income, the more money demanded for carrying out increased spending.
The precautionary motive: people prefer to have liquidity in the case of social unexpected problems that need unusual costs. The amount of money demanded for this purpose increases as income increases.
Speculative motive: People who expect that the price of bond will fall or the interest rate will increase will probably hold the money. Therefore the lower the interest rate, the more money demanded

Crowding effects is any reduction in private consumption on investment that occurs because of an increase in government spending.
Economic policy refers to the actions that governments take in the economic field. It covers the systems for setting interest rates and government budget and many other areas of government interventions into the economy.
Policy is generally directed to achieve particular objectives, like targets for inflation, unemployment, or economic growth.
Full employment: is a condition that all or nearly all person who are willing or able to work at the prevailing wages and work conditions are able to do so
Budget deficit: the outcome of government prevails over the income of government  
Fiscal policy: is the use of government expenditure and taxation to influence the economy. Governments use fiscal policy to influence the level of aggregate demand in the economy, in an effort to achieve economic objectives of price stability, full employment, and economic growth.
Impact on
•        Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity;
•        The pattern of resource allocation;
•        The distribution of income.
Fiscal policy: expansionary fiscal policy or contractionary fiscal policy
An expansionary fiscal policy: An expansionary fiscal policy involves a net increase in government spending or a fall in taxation revenue, or a combination of the two. This leads to the increase of aggregate demand of society. This will lead to a larger budget deficit or a smaller budget surplus than the government previously had. Expansionary fiscal policy is usually associated with a budget deficit.
A contractionary fiscal policy: A contractionary fiscal policy involves a net decrease government spending or a increase in taxation revenue, or a combination of the two, This leads to a fall of aggregate demand of society. This would lead to a lower budget deficit or a larger surplus than the government previously had. Contractionary fiscal policy is usually associated with a surplus.


Monetary policy: is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, and interest rates to promote economic growth and stability.
Monetary policy: expansionary policy or a contractionary policy, an expansionary policy increases the total supply of money in the economy, therefore lower the interest rates to combat unemployment in a recession and a contractionary policy decreases the total money supply, therefore to raise interest rates to combat inflation.
Monetary policy differs from fiscal policy, which refers to taxation, government spending, and associated borrowing
An interest rate is the rate that a borrower should pay for the use of money that they borrow from a lender.

Money: a commodity that is legally established as an exchangeable equivalent of all commodities
Demand deposit: : A deposit account held at a bank or other financial institution, for the purpose of securely and quickly providing frequent access to funds on demand.
The reserve requirement (or cash reserve ratio) is a central bank regulation that sets the minimum reserves each commercial bank must hold.
The AD-AS or Aggregate Demand-Aggregate Supply model is a macroeconomic model that explains price level and output through the relationship of aggregate demand and aggregate supply.
The AD curve is defined by the IS-LM equilibrium income at different potential price levels.
The AS(aggregate supply) curve may reflect either labor market disequilibrium or labor market equilibrium. In either case, it shows how much output is supplied by firms at various potential price levels.
Shifts of aggregate supply
If aggregate demand curve shifts to the right, the price level would go up and real GDP would increase. (Increase in government spending on goods and services; decrease in taxes; increase in the nominal money supply)
If the aggregate supply curve shifts to the right, As a result, the price level would drop and real GDP would increase. (Technological progress)
Unemployment rate:  
Inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, Consumer Price Index (CPI).
Inflation's effects on an economy are various and can be simultaneously positive and negative. Negative effects of inflation include a decrease in the real value of money and other monetary items over time, uncertainty over future inflation may discourage investment and savings. Positive effects include ensuring central banks can adjust nominal interest rates then encouraging consumption therefore to mitigate recessions。
Consumer price index (CPI) measures changes in the price level of consumer goods and services purchased by households over time.
.
The "updated cost" (i.e. the price of an item at a given year, e.g.: the price of bread in 1982) is divided by the initial year (the price of bread in 1970), then multiplied by one hundred.

The term business cycle (or economic cycle) refers to economy-wide fluctuations in production or economic activity over several months or years. These fluctuations Typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (a recovery or boom), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (a crisis or recession).Business cycles are usually measured by considering the growth rate of real gross domestic product.
Economic growth is not a steady phenomenon; rather, it tends to exhibit a pattern as follows:

    An expansion of above-average growth
    A peak
    A contraction of below-average growth
    A low-point

Exchange rate between two currencies is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another.

whui713

微观经济学
Western economics
Divide into Microeconomics and Macroeconomics
Microeconomics:
Studies the behavior of how the individual and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources. Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviors affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which determines prices, and how prices, in turn, determine the quantity supplied and quantity demanded of goods and services
1. Demand curve and supply curve and interrelated concepts just like elasticity of demand and supply.
Elasticity is the ratio of the percent change in one variable to the percent change in another variable. It is a tool for measuring the responsiveness of a function to changes in parameters in a unitless way. Frequently used elasticities include price elasticity of demand, price elasticity of supply,
需求弹性Price elasticity of demand : PED is a measure of responsiveness of the quantity of a good or service demanded to changes in its price. The formula for the coefficient of price elasticity of demand for a good is:

The above formula usually yields a negative value, due to the inverse nature of the relationship between price and quantity demanded, For example, if the price increases by 5% and quantity demanded decreases by 5%, then the elasticity at the initial price and quantity = −5%/5% = −1.
2. Theory of utility consumer theory
1)        Utility is a measure of relative satisfaction.
2)        Law of diminishing marginal utility
The marginal utility of each (homogenous) unit decreases as the supply of units increases
3)        Consumer’s surplus: Consumer surplus is the difference between the maximum price a consumer is willing to pay and the actual price they do pay
4)        The producer surplus is the amount that producers benefit by selling at a market price mechanism that is higher than the least that they would be willing to sell for.
5)        Attitude people towards risks: risk avoidance, risk preference, risk neutral
6)        An Engel curve describes how household expenditure on a particular good or service varies with household income.
3. Production theory
1)        The target of a firm pursues the maximum of profit
In economics, returns to scale and economies of scale are related terms that describe what happens as the scale of production increases in the long run.
The term returns to scale arises in the context of a firm's production function. It refers to changes in output resulting from a proportional change in all inputs. If output increases by that same proportional change then there are constant returns to scale (CRS). If output increases by less than that proportional change, there are decreasing returns to scale (DRS). If output increases by more than that proportional change, there are increasing returns to scale (IRS). Thus the returns to scale faced by a firm are purely technologically imposed and are not influenced by economic decisions or by market conditions.
Economies of scale: is a long run concept and refers to reductions in unit cost as the size of a facility and the usage levels of other inputs increase.
The common sources of economies of scale are purchasing (bulk buying of materials through long-term contracts), managerial (increasing the specialization of managers), and technological (taking advantage of returns to scale in the production function). Each of these factors reduces the long run average costs (LRAC) of production Economies of scale refer to a firm's costs; returns to scale describe the relationship between inputs and outputs in a long-run production.
Cost theory:
1)        Opportunity cost: It is kind of sacrifice related to the other best choice available to people who had several mutually exclusive choices.
Economic profit: A firm is said to be making an economic profit when its average total cost is less than the price of each additional product at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity output multiplied by the difference between the average total cost and the price.
Normal profit = cost: A firm is said to be making a normal profit when its economic profit equals zero.
Perfect competitive market
Perfect competitive market; monopolistic competition market; monopolistic market; oligopolistic market.
Price discrimination：When sales of identical goods or services are transacted at different prices from the same provider. Price discrimination can only be a feature of monopolistic and oligopolistic markets,
Market failure: a concept within economic theory that the allocation of goods and services by a free market is not efficient. Market failures are often associated with information asymmetries, Monopolies, externalities, or public goods. The existence of a market failure is often used as a justification for government intervention in a particular market. However, some types of government policy interventions, such as taxes, subsidies, wage and price controls, and regulations, including attempts to correct market failure, may also lead to an inefficient allocation of resources, (sometimes called government failures). Thus, there is sometimes a choice that whether uses government intervention when market failures occur.
Externalities: The actions of agents can have externalities, which are innate to the methods of production. For example, if a firm is producing steel, it pollutes the atmosphere when it makes steel, however, and if it is not forced to pay for the use of this resource, then this cost will be borne not by the firm but by society.
Common examples of an externality is environmental harm such as pollution or overexploitation of natural resources.
Monopolies: Agents in a market can gain market power, allowing them to block other mutually beneficial gains from trades from occurring. In a monopoly, the market equilibrium will no longer be Pareto optimal. The monopoly will use its market power to restrict output below the quantity at which the marginal social benefit is equal to the marginal social cost of the last unit produced, so as to keep prices and profits high.
Information asymmetry deals with the study of decisions in transactions where one party has more or better information than the other. This creates an imbalance of power in transactions which can sometimes cause the transactions to go awry. Examples of this problem are adverse selection and moral hazard.
Public good is a good that is non-rival and non-excludable. Non-rivalry means that consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce availability of the good for consumption by others; and non-excludability that no one can be effectively excluded from using the good.
Consumers can take advantage of public goods without contributing sufficiently to their creation. This is called the free rider problem. If too many consumers decide to 'free-ride', private costs exceed private benefits and the incentive to provide the good or service through the market disappears. The market thus fails to provide a good or service for which there is a need.
Pareto efficiency, or Pareto optimality Given an initial allocation of goods among a set of individuals, a change to a different allocation that makes at least one individual better off without making any other individual worse off is called a Pareto improvement. An allocation is defined as "Pareto efficient" or "Pareto optimal" when no further Pareto improvements can be made.
Rent-seeking generally implies the extraction of uncompensated value from others without making any contribution to productivity, such as by gaining control of land and other pre-existing natural resources, or by imposing burdensome regulations or other government decisions that may affect consumers or businesses. Rent-seeking agents will spend money in socially unproductive ways, such as political lobbying, in order to attain, maintain or increase monopoly power.

whui713

国际经济学
Absolute advantage: In economics, principle of absolute advantage refers to the ability of a party (an individual, or firm, or country) to produce more of a good or service than competitors, using the same amount of resources. [Adam Smith first described the principle of absolute advantage in the context of international trade, using labor as the only input.]
Law of comparative advantage: In economics, the law of comparative advantage says that two countries can both gain from trade if they have different relative costs for producing the same goods. Even if one country is more efficient in the production of all goods (absolute advantage), it can still gain by trading with a less-efficient country, as long as they have different relative efficiencies
Labor theories of value: the value of a commodity is related to the labor needed to produce that commodity.
Production possibility frontier: is a graph that shows the different rates of production of two goods that an economy can produce efficiently with a limited quantity of productive resources.
The Heckscher–Ohlin model (H–O model) the model says that countries will export products that use their abundant and cheap factor(s) of production and import products that use the countries' scarce factor(s)
Tariff is a tax levied on imports or exports. Tariffs are usually associated with protectionism, a government's policy of controlling trade between nations to support the interests of its own citizens. For economic reasons, tariffs are usually imposed on imported goods.

Nontariff trade barriers (NTBs) & new protectionism
Quotas, like other trade restrictions, are used to benefit the producers of a good in a domestic economy at the expense of all consumers of the good in that economy.
Import quota is a type of protectionist trade restriction that sets a limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period of time.
Voluntary export restraint: VERs arise when the import-competing industries seek protection from a surge of imports from particular exporting countries. VERs are then offered by the exporter to appease the importing country and to deter the other party from imposing even more explicit (and less flexible) trade barriers. Government imposed limit on the quantity of goods that can be exported out of a country during a specified period of time.
Export credit: act as an intermediary between national governments and exporters to issue export financing.
Dumping (pricing policy) is the act of a manufacturer in one country exporting a product to another country at a price which is either below the price it charges in its home market.
Export subsidy is a government policy to encourage export of goods and discourage sale of goods on the domestic market through low-cost loans or tax relief for exporters.
Economic integration refers to trade unification between different states by the partial or full abolishing of customs tariffs on trade. This is meant in turn to lead to lower prices for distributors and consumers (as no customs duties are paid within the integrated area) and the goal is to increase trade.
(1) Preferential trading area; (2) Free trade area (3) Customs union (4) Common market
(5) Economic union
Customs union: A customs union is a type of trade block which is composed of a free trade area with a common external tariff. The participant countries set up common external trade policy. Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries.
A balance of payments (BOP) sheet is an accounting record of all monetary transactions between a country and the rest of the world.
Exchange rate between two currencies is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another.
A floating exchange rate or fluctuating exchange rate is a type of exchange rate regime wherein a currency's value is allowed to fluctuate according to the foreign exchange market. (Automatically adjust, they enable a country to dampen the impact of shocks and foreign business cycles)
A fixed exchange rate, sometimes or pegged exchange rate is a type of exchange rate regime wherein a currency's value is matched to the value of another single currency. (This makes trade and investments between the two countries easier and more predictable.)
Labor-intensive product
Capital intensive product

amandaleaf

LZ真是个实在人！！！直接发文字上来了。。。。经济学的同学看看咯~~~俺们工科女子一枚飘过~~~

whui713

国际贸易
International trade is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, it represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP).
The balance of trade (Net export/ net import): It is the relationship between a nation's imports and exports. A positive balance is known as a trade surplus if it consists of exporting more than is imported; a negative balance is referred to as a trade deficit or a trade gap.
Terms of trade or TOT is (Price Exports)/(Price Imports). Terms of trade is defined as the ratio of the total export revenue a country receives for its export commodity to the total import revenue it pays for its import commodity.
Degree of dependence on trade
manufactured goods 工业制成品 primary goods 初级产品
A multinational corporation (MNC) or enterprise (MNE) is a corporation or an enterprise that manages production or delivers services in more than one country. It has its management headquarters in one country, known as the home country, and operates in several other countries, known as host countries.
Economic globalization refers to increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of goods, service, technology and capital. It is the process of increasing economic integration between countries, leading to the emergence of a global marketplace or a single world market.
Economic globalisation comprises the globalisation of production, markets, competition, technology, and corporations and industries. his recent boom has been largely accounted by developed economies integrating with less developed economies, by means of foreign direct investment, the reduction of trade barriers, and the modernization of these developing cultures, though through this investment, it may provide a loss (such as sending the textile industry overseas).
Foreign trade policy: protect domestic market; stimulate export market growth; promote adjustment of native industrial structure; accumulate capital
Free trade policy; protective policy
A customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation (usually) or exportation (unusually) of goods. 关境： Customs Frontier 海关： Customs House
Export credit: act as an intermediary between national governments and exporters to issue export financing.
GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an inventor for a limited period of time in exchange for a public disclosure of an invention. The term patent usually refers to an exclusive right granted to anyone who invents any new, useful, and non-obvious process, machine, article of manufacture or any new and useful improvement.( Novelty, progress, utility)
A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to identify that the products or services to consumers with which the trademark appears originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities.
Business consultation: Inquiry
Offer and acceptance analysis is a traditional approach in contract law used to determine whether an agreement exists between two parties. Agreement consists of an offer by an indication of one person (the "offeror") to another (the "offeree") of the offeror's willingness to enter into a contract on certain terms without further negotiations.
Offer is an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms, made with the intention. An offer is a statement of the terms on which the offeror is willing to be bound, and is with definite and certain terms communicated to the offeree.
It shall become binding as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom it is addressed", the "offeree".
The "expression" referred to in the definition may take different forms, such as a letter, newspaper, fax, email and even conduct, as long as it communicates the basis on which the offeror is prepared to contract.
Acceptance: A contract is said to come into existence when acceptance of an offer (agreement to the terms in it) has been communicated to the offeror by the offeree.
A commercial invoice is a document used in foreign trade. It is used as a customs declaration provided by the person or corporation that is exporting an item across international borders.
Although there is no standard format, the document must include a few specific pieces of information such as the parties involved in the shipping transaction, the goods being transported, the country of manufacture, and the Harmonized System codes for those goods. A commercial invoice must also include a statement certifying that the invoice is true, and a signature.
看wiki上的图~
A commercial invoice is used to calculate tariffs, international commercial terms (like the Cost in a CIF) and is commonly used for customs purposes.
A Letter of Credit (LC) is a document issued by your bank that essentially acts as an irrevocable guarantee of payment to a beneficiary. This means that if you do not perform your obligations, your bank pays.
Inco term:
Incoterms or International Commercial terms are a series of pre-defined commercial terms widely used in international commercial transactions. Incoterms intends to reduce or remove altogether uncertainties arising from different interpretation of such terms in different countries, like costs and insurance. Incoterms have been periodically updated, with the eighth version—Incoterms 2010—having been published on January 1, 2011.
Water (Maritime) transportation (only):
FOB – Free on board: the seller must themself load the goods on board the ship nominated by the buyer, cost and risk being divided at ship's rail. The seller must clear the goods for export.
CFR – Cost and Freight (named destination port)
Seller must pay the costs and freight to bring the goods to the port of destination. However, risk is transferred to the buyer once the goods are loaded on the ship. Insurance for the goods is NOT included. Insurance is at the Cost of the Buyer.
CIF – Cost, Insurance and Freight (named destination port)
Exactly the same as CFR except that the seller must in addition procure and pay for insurance for the buyer.
FAS – Free Alongside Ship (named loading port)
The seller must place the goods alongside the ship at the named port. The seller must clear the goods for export.
General mode of transportation
EXW – Ex Works (named place) The buyer is responsible for all charges. This trade term places the greatest responsibility on the buyer and minimum obligations on the seller.
FCA – Free Carrier (named places)
The seller hands over the goods, cleared for export, into the custody of the buyer at the named place.
CPT – Carriage Paid To (named place of destination)
The seller pays for carriage to the named point of destination, but risk passes when the goods are handed over to the first carrier. (The general/containerised/multimodal equivalent of CFR.)
CIP – Carriage and Insurance Paid (To) (named place of destination)
Seller pays for carriage and insurance to the named destination point, but risk passes when the goods are handed over to the first carrier. (The containerised transport/multimodal equivalent of CIF).
A bill of exchange or "draft" is a written order by the drawer to the drawee to pay money to the payee. A common type of bill of exchange is the cheque.
A cheque is a document/instrument that orders a payment of money. The person writing the cheque, the drawer, usually has a current account where their money was previously deposited. The drawer writes the various details including the money amount, date, and a payee on the cheque, and signs it, ordering their bank, known as the drawee, to pay that person or company the amount of money stated.
电汇： Telegraphic transfer/T; 信汇： Mail transfer M/T; 汇票： Banker’s demand draft D/D

whui713

国际金融：
Foreign exchange rate: exchange rate between two currencies is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another. It is also regarded as the value of one country’s currency in terms of another currency.
The spot exchange rate refers to the current exchange rate. The forward exchange rate refers to an exchange rate that is quoted and traded today but for delivery and payment on a specific future date.
Direct quotation: 1 foreign currency unit = x home currency units
Indirect quotation: 1 home currency unit = x foreign currency units
Note that, using direct quotation, if the home currency is strengthening (i.e., appreciating, or becoming more valuable) then the exchange rate number decreases. Conversely if the foreign currency is strengthening, the exchange rate number increases and the home currency is depreciating.
A floating exchange rate the currency's value is allowed to fluctuate according to the foreign exchange market(supply and demand). Exchange rates for such currencies are likely to change almost constantly as quoted on financial markets, mainly by banks, around the world.
As floating exchange rates automatically adjust, they enable a country to dampen the impact of shocks and foreign business cycles
A fixed exchange rate, sometimes called a pegged exchange rate, a currency's value is matched to the value of another single currency or to another measure of value, such as gold.
Mundell-Fleming model: argues that an economy cannot simultaneously maintain a fixed exchange rate, perfect capital mobility, and an independent monetary policy. It can choose any two for control, and leave third to the market forces. With perfect capital mobility, a fixed exchange rate prevents a government from using domestic monetary policy in order to achieve macroeconomic stability.
A fixed exchange rate is usually used to stabilize the value of a currency against the currency it is pegged to. This makes trade and investments between the two countries easier and more predictable,
Criticism: The main criticism of a fixed exchange rate is that flexible exchange rates serve to automatically adjust the balance of trade. Balance of payment model Under fixed exchange rates, this automatic rebalancing does not occur.
Pegged floating currencies are pegged to some band or value, either fixed or periodically adjusted
Balance of payments model
This model holds that a foreign exchange rate must be at its equilibrium level - the rate which produces a stable current account balance. A nation with a trade deficit will experience reduction in its foreign exchange reserves, which ultimately lowers (depreciates) the value of its currency. The cheaper currency renders the nation's goods (exports) more affordable in the global market place while making imports more expensive. After an intermediate period, imports are forced down and exports rise, thus stabilizing the trade balance and the currency towards equilibrium.
Fluctuations in exchange rates A market based exchange rate will change whenever the values of either of the two component currencies change. A currency will tend to become more valuable whenever demand for it is greater than the available supply. It will become less valuable whenever demand is less than available supply. Increased demand for a currency is due to either an increased transaction demand for money or an increased speculative demand for money.
Hedging is an investment position intended to offset potential losses that may be incurred by a companion investment.
A currency future, or foreign exchange future, is a futures contract to exchange one currency for another at a specified date in the future at a price that is fixed on the purchase date.
A foreign exchange option (commonly shortened to just FX option or currency option) is a derivative financial instrument, the owner has the right but not the obligation to exchange money into another currency at a pre-agreed exchange rate on a specified date.
Futures contract is a standardized contract between two parties to exchange a specified asset of standardized quantity and quality for a price agreed today (the futures price or the strike price) but with delivery occurring at a specified future date, the delivery date. The contracts are traded on a futures exchange.
Option is a derivative financial instrument that specifies a contract between two parties for a future transaction on an asset at a reference price. The buyer of the option gains the right, but not the obligation, to engage in that transaction, while the seller incurs the corresponding obligation to fulfill the transaction.
LIBOR: London Inter-bank offered Rate 伦敦同业拆放利率
The London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) is the interest rates that banks borrow unsecured funds from other banks in the interbank lending market.
Eurocurrency is to describe deposits in the country issued by overseas banking system. For example a deposit denominated in US dollars residing in a European bank is a Eurocurrency deposit, or more specifically a Eurodollar deposit.
A Eurobond is an international bond that is denominated in a currency not native to the country where it is issued. Eurobonds are named after the currency they are denominated in, for example, Euroyen and Eurodollar bonds.
Foreign exchange reserves are only the foreign currency deposits and bonds held by central banks and monetary authorities, including foreign exchange reserves and gold reserves, SDRs(Special Drawing Rights, 特别提款权) and IMF reserve positions(国际货币基金组织储备头寸) Purpose：In a flexible exchange rate system, official international reserve assets allow a central bank to purchase the domestic currency. This action can stabilize the value of the domestic currency (through influencing exchange rates)

whui713

货币银行学
The study objects of Money and Banking are money ,credit ,bank ,financial market and the balance of payment .

Money: A commodity that is legally established as an exchangeable equivalent of all other commodities, and is used as a measure of their comparative values on the market.
Function: 1, medium of exchange 2, standard of value (measure the value of goods) 3, store of value 4, standard of deterred payments (future payment)
Positive effects: 1, decrease transaction costs, augments exchange efficiency 2. Optimize the distribution of resources. 3, boost economics
Negative effects: when money supply growing faster than money demand, cause inflation, Vice versa, cause deflation.
Monetary system: gold standard, bimetallic, silver standard, credited monetary system.

Credit: the behavior that they loan you money to use which you must in turn pay back including interest.
Credit tools:
Short-term credit tools:
1)        汇票：A bill of exchange or "draft" is a written order by the drawer to the drawee to pay money to the payee. A bill of exchange is an unconditional order in writing addressed by one person to another, signed by drawer, requiring the drawee to pay on demand or at fixed or determinable future time a sum certain in money to payee.
2)        本票：A promissory note, is a negotiable instrument（可转让票据）, one party (the maker or issuer) makes an unconditional promise in writing to pay a sum of money to the other (the payee), either at a fixed or determinable future time or on demand of the payee, under specific terms.
3)        支票：A cheque is a document that orders a payment of money. The person writing the cheque, the drawer, usually has a current accountwhere their money was previously deposited. The drawer writes the various details including the money amount, date, and a payee on the cheque, and signs it, ordering their bank, known as the drawee, to pay that person or company the amount of money stated.
Long-term credit tools:
1)        Stock: The capital stock (or just stock) of a business entity represents the original capital paid into or invested in the business by its founders. Stock is distinct from the property and the assets of a business which may fluctuate in quantity and value.
2)        In finance, a bond is a debt security, in which the authorized issuer owes the holders a debt and, depending on the terms of the bond, is obliged to pay interest (the coupon) to repay the principal at a later date, termed maturity(支票等到期). A bond is a formal contract to repay borrowed money with interest at fixed intervals.
Interest is a fee paid by a borrower of assets to the owner as a form of compensation for the use of the assets. It is most commonly the price paid for the use of borrowed money.
A financial institution is an institution that provides financial services for its clients or members. Probably the most important financial service provided by financial institutions is acting as financial intermediaries. Most financial institutions are highly regulated by government.
There are three major types of financial institutions:
1. Deposit-taking institutions that accept and manage deposits and make loans, including banks, building societies, credit unions, trust companies, and mortgage loan companies
2. Insurance companies and pension funds; and
3. Brokers, underwriters and investment funds.

Interest :simple interest ,compound interest .
The rate of interest :IS-LM curve(Hicks)
A Eurobond is an international bond that is denominated in a currency not native to the country.
spot exchange rate(即期汇率): The spot price or spot rate of a commodity, a security or a currency is the price that is quoted(报价) for immediate (spot) payment and delivery. Spot settlement is normally one or two business days from trade date. This is in contrast with the forward price established in a forward contract or futures contract, where contract terms (price) are set now, but delivery and payment will occur at a future date.
The forward price (or sometimes forward rate) is the agreed price of an asset in a forward contract. Using the rational pricing assumption, for a forward contract on an underlying(潜在的) asset that is tradable(可贸易的), we can express the forward price in terms of the spot price.
Commercial bank:
A commercial bank is a type of financial institution and intermediary. It is a bank that provides transactional, saving, and money market accounts and that accept time deposits.
A deposit account is a current account, savings account, or other type of bank account, at a banking institution that allows money to be deposited and withdrawn by the account holder. These transactions are recorded on the bank's books, and the resulting balance is recorded as a liability for the bank, and represents the amount owed by the bank to the customer.
Bank operation :saving ,loaning ,investment ,exchange ,entrustment ,lease ,consultation ,bank cards , inter-bank borrowing.
Reserve 准备金 ,discount 贴现 .
Central bank: the special financial organization which stands for the nation to intervene national economic and manage financial affairs and act as an agent of state treasury,
Central bank has right to issue money and in contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on printing the national currency, which usually serves as the nation's legal tender
Central bank has more active duties include controlling interest rates, and acting as a lender of last resort to the banking sector
Monetary policy goals: include relatively stable prices, economic growth, low unemployment and balance of payments.
The risk of investment :futures (套期保值)
Balance of payment : Surplus and trade deficit
Fixed exchange rate and floating exchange rate
International financial organization: International Monetary Fund (IMF), Asian Development Bank (ADB), International bank for reconstruction and development (IBRD)
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is the intergovernmental organization that oversees the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries; in particular those with an impact on exchange rate and the balance of payments. Its objectives are to stabilize international exchange rates and facilitate development through the encouragement of liberalizing economic policies
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is an international organization. Its mission has expanded to fight poverty by means of financing states.
Inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.
Consumer price index CPI: measures changes in the price level of consumer goods and services purchased by households.  
GDP deflator is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure.
The facts of influencing exchange rate: the balance of payment, inflation, interest rate
The causes of inflation: too fast economical development, too much foreign loans, the influence of other country inflation.
Monetary policy: change the monetary supply and change the interest rate.
Exchange rate between two currencies is the rate at which one currency will be exchanged for another. Direct quota system; indirect quota system.
A balance of payments (BOP) sheet is an accounting record of all monetary transactions between a country and the rest of the world. Including current account(经常项目); capital account(资本项目); balancing items(平衡项目)
货币银行学
再贴现政策 rediscount policy
公开市场业务 open market operation
银行业务 mechanics of banking
提高货币供应量 increase money supply
银行存款 bank deposit
纸币paper currency国贸实务
风险承担 risk – taking
风险自负 own risk
出口退税 export tax rebate
出口许可证 outward clearance
进口许可证 certificate of import license
提单 bill of lading
单独/共同海损 particular average/ general average
汇票 bill of exchange/ drafts
汇票承兑 Acceptance bill
汇票托收 Bill collection
汇票议付 Delay payment
汇付 Remittance
汇款人 Remitter
本票 Promissory Notes
信用证 Credit
保兑Confirmation
撤回 Withdrawn
撤销 Revocation

whui713

产业经济学
Industrial economics:
Market structure: describes the competitive relation between companies.
Perfect competition is a theoretical market structure that there are no barriers to entry, an unlimited number of producers and consumers, and a perfectly elastic demand curve.
Monopoly, where there is only one provider of a product or service.
Oligopoly, in which a market is dominated by a small number of firms that together control the majority of the market share.
Monopolistic competition also called competitive market, where there are a large number of firms, each having a small proportion of the market share and slightly differentiated products.
Business strategy:
Price discrimination: exists when sales of identical goods or services are transacted at different prices from the same provider.
In first degree price discrimination, price varies by customer's willingness or ability to pay.
In second degree price discrimination, price varies according to quantity sold.
In third degree price discrimination, price varies by attributes such as location or by customer segment.
Merger or Takeover
A takeover is the purchase of one company (the target) by another (the acquire)
There are a variety of reasons why an acquiring company may wish to purchase another company
1. The acquired company is profitable and has good distribution capabilities in new areas which the acquiring company can use for its own products as well.
2. Merger allows the acquiring company to enter a new market without having to take on the risk, time and expense of starting a new division.
3. be more profitable than the two companies separately due to a reduction of redundant functions.
4. Take over a competitor not only because the competitor is profitable, but in order to eliminate competition in its field and make it easier, in the long term, to arise prices.
Cartel A cartel is a formal (explicit) agreement among competing firms. It is a formal organization of producers and manufacturers that agree to fix prices, marketing, and production. Cartels usually occur in an oligopolistic industry. The aim of such agreement is to increase individual members' profits by reducing competition.

财政学
Public finance:
Public finance is a field of economics concerned with paying for collective or governmental activities, and with the administration and design of those activities.
Government expenditures:
Economists classify government expenditures into three main types. Government purchases of goods and services for current use are classed as government consumption. Government purchases of goods and services intended to create future benefits--- such as infrastructure investment or research spending--- are classed as government investment. Government expenditures that are not purchases of goods and services, and instead just represent transfers of money--- such as social security payments--- are called transfer payments.
Income distribution - Some forms of government expenditure are specifically intended to transfer income from some groups to others. For example, governments sometimes transfer income to people that have suffered a loss due to natural disaster. Likewise, public pension programs transfer wealth from the young to the old. Other forms of government expenditure which represent purchases of goods and services also have the effect of changing the income distribution. For example, engaging in a war may transfer wealth to certain sectors of society. Public education transfers wealth to families with children in these schools. Public road construction transfers wealth from people that do not use the roads to those people that do (and to those that build the roads).
Financing of government expenditures:
Government revenue: Taxes; Debt
Taxation is the central part of modern public finance. It is by far the most important of all revenues. Taxation is necessary in a welfare State to fulfill its obligations. It is thus needed not merely to raise the revenue required to meet its ever-growing expenditure on administration and social services but also to reduce the inequalities of income and wealth (redistribution of wealth).
Debt Governments, like any other legal entity, can take out loans, issue bonds and make financial investments. As the government represents the people, government debt can be seen as an indirect debt of the taxpayers. Government debt can be categorized as internal debt, owed to lenders within the country, and external debt, owed to foreign lenders. Governments usually borrow by issuing securities such as government bonds and bills.

Tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a state. Therefore tax is not a voluntary payment or donation, but an enforced contribution.
Taxation has three main purposes or effects: Revenue, Redistribution, and Repricing:
1. The main purpose is revenue: taxes raise money to spend on armies, roads, schools and hospitals, and on more indirect government functions like market regulation or legal systems.
2. A second is redistribution. Normally, this means transferring wealth from the richer sections of society to poorer sections. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates. This is done to distribute the tax burden among individuals or classes of the population involved in taxable activities. China uses progressive tax personal income tax. Therefore the low-income people will pay less, vice versa.
3. A third purpose of taxation is repricing. Taxes are levied to address externalities; for example, tobacco is taxed to discourage smoking, and a carbon tax discourages use of carbon-based fuels.

A government budget is a legal document that is often passed by the legislature, and approved by the chief executive-or president.
The two basic elements of any budget are the revenues and expenses. In the case of the government, revenues are derived primarily from taxes. Government expenses include spending on current goods and services, which economists call government consumption; government investment expenditures such as infrastructure investment or research expenditure; and transfer payments like unemployment or retirement benefits.

whui713

金融经济学
股利贴现模型：Dividend discount model: calculate the value of stock expected cash flow, and regard it as the value of stock. D1= expected dividend per share, k= rate of returns, P0=the price of stock.
Formula：
Portfolio selection:
In finance, a portfolio is a collection of investments held by an institution or an individual. Holding a portfolio is a part of an investment and risk-limiting strategy called diversification. By owning several assets, certain types of risk (in particular specific risk) can be reduced. The assets in the portfolio could include bank accounts, stocks, bonds, options, warrants, gold certificates, real estate, and futures contracts.
In building up an investment portfolio a financial institution will typically conduct its own investment analysis, while a private individual may make use of the services of a financial advisor or a financial institution which offers portfolio management services.
Efficient portfolio: the optimal portfolio for investors.
Risk-free asset: an investor would expect the interest from an absolutely risk-free investment over a given period of time.
Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)

　　A model that describes the relationship between risk and expected return and that is used in the pricing of risky securities.
The general idea behind CAPM is that investors need to be compensated in two ways: time value of money and risk. The time value of money is represented by the risk-free (rf) rate in the formula and compensates the investors for placing money in any investment over a period of time. The other half of the formula represents risk and calculates the amount of compensation the investor needs for taking on additional risk. This is calculated by taking a risk measure (beta) that compares the returns of the asset to the market over a period of time and to the market premium (Rm-rf).

政治经济学
Political economics refers to economic theories on the functioning of capitalism based on the works of Karl Marx.
Commodities: The worth of a commodity can be conceived of in two different ways, which Marx calls use-value and value. A commodity's use-value is its usefulness for fulfilling some practical purpose; for example, the use value of a hammer, that it can drive nails. Value is, on the other hand, a measure of a commodity's worth in comparison to other commodities. It is closely related to exchange-value, the ratio at which commodities should be traded for one another, but not identical: value is at a more general level of abstraction; exchange-value is a realization or form of it. The value of all commodities is produced by human labour. The value of a commodity is simply the amount of human labour required to produce it.
The law of value: the trading ratios of different types of products reflect a real cost structure of production, and this cost structure ultimately reduces to the socially average amounts of human labor-time currently required to produce different goods and services. Simply put, if product a takes 100 hours of human work to produce in total, and product B takes 5 hours to produce, the normal trading-ratio of A and B will reach to a rate of around 1:20. Most market trade is regular and largely predictable, rather than chaotic and arbitrary; norms of what products are worth relative to each other are mostly clearly known and established, even if people lack an exact knowledge of prices.
Theory of surplus value: It refers roughly to the new value created by the unpaid labour of the worker upon the value of his labour power. And surplus value is freely appropriated by the capitalist and is the base of the profit, thus being the primary basis for capital accumulation. And the competitive striving to obtain maximum surplus-value from the employment of labor, results in an equally gigantic increase of productivity and capital resources.
The Circuits and turnover of Capital

财务管理
Financial management
The time value of money is the value of money figuring in a given amount of interest earned over a given amount of time.
For example, 100 dollars of today's money invested for one year and earning 5 percent interest will be worth 105 dollars after one year.
Present value The current worth of a future sum of money or stream of cash flows given a specified rate of return. Future cash flows are discounted at the discount rate, and the higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of the future cash flows. Determining the appropriate discount rate is the key to properly valuing future cash flows
Future value is the value of an asset or cash at a specified date in the future that is equivalent in value to a specified sum today.

Present value of an annuity An annuity is a series of equal payments or receipts that occur at evenly spaced intervals. Leases and rental payments are examples.
Future value of an annuity (FVA) is the future value of a stream of payments (annuity)

Channels to raise funds：
Common stock is a form of corporate equity ownership, a type of security. It is called "common" to distinguish it from preferred stock. In the event of bankruptcy, common stock investors receive their funds after preferred stock holders.
Bond is a debt security, in which the authorized issuer owes the holders a debt and, depending on the terms of the bond, is obliged to pay interest to use.

Capital budgeting(资本预算) is the planning process used to determine whether an organisation's long term investments such as new machinery, replacement machinery, new plants, and new products are worth pursuing. It is budget for major investment, expenditures.
Evaluating indicator
1. Return on Investment (ROI): is the ratio of profit gained on an investment relative to the amount of money invested. ROI is usually expressed as a percentage.
2. Net Present Value (NPV): is defined as the sum of the present values (PVs) of the individual cash flows. The NPV is simply the PV of future cash flows minus the purchase price
Working capital is a financial metric(财务指标) which represents operating liquidity available to a business, organization, or other entity, including governmental entity.
Management of working capital: management will use a combination of policies and techniques for the management of working capital. These policies aim at managing the current assets (generally cash and cash equivalents, inventories) and the short term financing,
1. Cash management：Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet day to day expenses, but reduces cash holding costs.
2. Inventory management： Identify the level of inventory which allows for uninterrupted production but reduces the investment in raw materials - and minimizes reordering costs - and hence increases cash flow. Besides this, the lead times in production should be lowered to reduce Work in Progress (WIP) and similarly, the Finished Goods should be kept on as low level as possible to avoid over production
3. Short term financing： Identify the appropriate source of financing, given the cash conversion cycle: the inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by the supplier; however, it may be necessary to utilize a bank loan, or to "convert debtors to cash" through "factoring"(代理经营).
A current asset is an asset on the balance sheet which can either be converted to cash or used to pay current liabilities within 12 months. Typical current assets include cash, accounts receivable(应收账款), inventory.
Financing is to raise funds. One method is debt financing, which includes bank loans and bond sales. Another method is equity financing - the sale of stock by a company to investors. Possession of stock gives the investor ownership in the company in proportion to the number of shares the investor owns. In return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it may use to expand its business or to reduce its debt.
balance sheet 资产负债表

汉汉大怪兽

T.T楼主你早上传几天也好啊~~~~我审核被问到的问题都是经济史...我真的想SHI啊。。。。

polaris1625

感谢楼主  顶！！！！！！！！！

伊朗石油

楼主太帅气了~~~

tensionz

这么复杂啊....楼主你牛人

a3785015

楼主好人啊  帮顶！！！！！！！

yxz224488

楼主大好人~

alanli138

楼主你好，我是打算去比利时的，是国贸专业，你考试时把你准备的这些材料都记住了？我感觉好多啊。而且我们的专业课很多，你是重点准备了这几个还是？？笔试难不难？给我点复习的建议吧，不生感激

Salinar520

楼主，我也是经济学专业，想申请德国的研究生。可不可以麻烦你把你的资料发到我邮箱里呢？本人感激不尽啊~~
Salinar520@126.com

whui713

回复 18# alanli138


    你好~这些资料我差不多都理解了，能说出来就行，不行的话可以画图表示。当时我准备的时候，在abcdv上看材料，好多都是国贸的东西，而且我们也有相关课程，我就都准备了一下。国贸东西是挺多的，但是你不知道他会问什么，所以还是都看一下好，不用太深，大概明白就好，他也不会问很难得东西，让他知道你学过就好~分数什么的主要是由你提供的大学成绩确定，自认为跟审核表现关系不大，审核的目的就是让他知道你学过了。
    笔试不难，但是有数学的东西，一时我忘了怎么算，但是做题原理我告诉审核官了，我觉得他只要是知道你学过就好，

alanli138

回复 20# whui713

谢谢楼主这么快的回复。。。数学类？是高数现代还是指经济类问题中涉及到的计算？哎，我属于那种四年都没有好好上过课的，这下迷茫坏了。

whui713

回复 21# alanli138


    经济类问题中设计的计算~~~很简单~~~只要不紧张~不慌就都能答对！没问题的！

whui713

回复 19# Salinar520


    资料给你发过去了~！加油哦！

Binlingual

楼主好好人~万分感谢~

isaac0212

楼主太好了！！！